Descent of the Ganges or Arjuna’s Penance? Mahabalipuram

08/03/2010 Indrani Ghose
38 Comments
India, Travel

Descent of the Ganges Mahabalipuram is one the most mind boggling sculpted bas relief in Tamil Nadu. Descent of the Ganges is known locally as Arjuna’s Penance or Arjuna Tapassu. It is lying out in the open for all to see. The bas relief looks more like a stone canvas on which the sculptors of Pallava era worked with their chisels and hammers to their heart’s content.

Now, what exactly ran through the sculptors’ minds, which story did they actually represent through the carvings is till today a matter of great debate.

Something so precious, yet lying so uncared beside a road where traffic plies nonstop.

Descent of Ganges Mahabalipuram

Descent of the Ganges or  Arjuna’s Penance Mahabalipuram

Based on an old picture taken before the repair works by PWD (Public Works Department) in late 19th century Dr Vogel in his article, ‘Iconographical Notes on the Seven Pagodas’, states that, “a naga figure and elephant tusk faced the damage due to the water flow through the cleft, the natural fissure that divides the cliff.” It was published in the annual report of Archaeological Survey of India in 1910-14. He suggested that to make water flow free and steady, two naga (snake)figures were fixed after the work was finished. They are not hewn out the original rock.

It is believed water used to flow in the middle cleft but the mystery was the water source. There is no nearby river or water stream from where water can be drawn. According to Dr Vogel a cistern of about 23 feet square tank which was filled probably during the festival season or in rainy seasons was the water supply to the cleft.

PWD carved a small wall at the top of the cleft to save the relief from further damage due to flowing water.

Descent of Ganges and Arjunas Penance Mahabalipuram

Baby elephants huddled around mama elephant’s leg!

Descent of the Ganges or the Arjuna’s Penance?

Does this Mamallapuram sculpture panel depict a scene from the Descent of the Ganges or the Arjuna’s Penance? I found the relief carvings on the huge rock the most stunning work in Mahabalipuram. A 25.5 by 12 meter tall structure; the relief has so many sculpted images that leaves one confused what it could all mean. This is a popular monument from the Pallava times, a South Indian dynasty that existed from 275 CE to 897 CE.

This 7th-century boulder tells the tale of Arjuna’s penance to Shiva during Mahabharata. While some scholars have attributed it to the reign of Mahendravarman I, others believe that it was built by his successor Narasimhavarman I, as a symbol of the victory of the Pallavas over the Early Western Chalukyas.

Descent of Ganges in Mahabalipuram

Arjuna Tapassu in top right of the picture

The intricate relief is teeming with 150 figures, featuring a diverse array of gods, goddesses, rishis, hunters, animals, and even hybrid beings like kiratas and kinnaras. A natural cleft in the rock has been cleverly integrated into the artwork, representing the Ganges River, as indicated by the presence of nagas and naginis.

Looking at the sculpted images, I tried to relate to various stories each section might be representing. My mind was recollecting the article I read on conflicting views about this relief: whether this depicted ‘Arjuna’s Penance’ or ‘Bhagiratha’s penance’ that is for descent of the Ganges.

Story of Arjuna’s Penance

Pandav Prince Arjuna undertakes a rigorous penance in the Himalayas to obtain the Pashupata weapon from Lord Shiva. Pleased by his devotion, Shiva disguises himself as a hunter and confronts Arjuna after they both shoot an arrow at the same boar. A duel ensues, but Arjuna realizes that none of his arrows can reach the hunter. Seeking strength, he offers flowers to the Shivalinga he had been worshipping, only to discover the same flowers adorning the hunter. Realizing the hunter is Shiva, Arjuna begs for forgiveness and is granted the powerful Pashupata weapon.

In the Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchi, this scene is beautifully depicted. Bharavi’s Sanskrit play Kiratarjuniya likely inspired this sculpture. He was the contemporary of Mahendravarman I. Interestingly, the panel lacks the boar, possibly because it’s positioned high up to represent the Himalayas. The fissure in the panel might symbolize a river, suggesting a connection to the many rivers originating from the Himalayas. However, this interpretation could detract from the central theme of Arjuna’s penance. While the penance scene is the focus, the presence of figures, including Surya and Chandra, moving towards the river adds complexity. A couple on the left also walks towards the fissure, their backs turned to Shiva, raising questions about the story’s portrayal.

Story of Descent of the Ganges

Bhagiratha’s penance would mean, the penance of sage Bhagiratha in Himalayas to bring down River Ganga to Earth (descent of the Ganges) for redeeming his ancestor’s souls. To prevent the force of the cascade from destroying the earth, Lord Shiva, one of the primary deities of Hinduism, manifested under its fall. He allowed the water to be caught in his long, matted hair. This caused the water to trickle out in gentle tributaries.

The story of Descent of the Ganges here – King Sagara of Ayodhya, from the Ikshvaku dynasty, performed his hundredth Ashvamedha yajna, leaving his horse free to roam. However, Indra, fearing that Sagara would attain the same status as him, stole the horse and hid it in Kapil Muni’s ashram. When Sagara’s sixty thousand sons found the horse, they disturbed Kapil Muni’s meditation, and in anger, the sage cursed them, turning them to ashes. Sagara, seeking forgiveness, prayed to Kapil Muni, who told him that only the holy waters of the Ganga could cleanse the ashes and free his sons’ souls. Despite his efforts, Sagara couldn’t bring the Ganga to earth, and neither could his successors. It was his great-grandson, Bhagiratha, who performed a severe penance to Shiva in the Himalayas. Pleased with his devotion, Shiva agreed to release the Ganga, holding her in his hair-locks to soften her fierce descent to earth. This story, as believed by some scholars, is depicted here.

Supporting arguments that the panel depicts the descent of the Ganges:

  1. Middle Cleft and Nagas: the cleft in the middle of the panel represents a river, supported by the presence of nagas who traditionally live in water.
  2. Figures Moving Towards the Cleft: Most of the figures in the panel are shown moving towards the central fissure, implying they are witnessing something significant—likely the descent of Ganga.
  3. Nagas in Anjali Posture: The nagas are depicted in a posture of adoration, suggesting they are honoring Ganga as she descends.
  4. Bhagiratha Theme: If the Ganga descent theory is accepted, then the figures on the left likely represent Shiva and Bhagiratha performing penance on one foot.

Whichever may be the story, it was immaterial to me then. I was devouring the images with eyes and lens, constructing my own stories and tried to relate to the images of the masterpiece in my own way. It is hard not to enjoy the relief even with little or no understanding of its complex mythology.

Other Images on Mamallapuram Sculpture

Central to the composition is an emaciated figure standing on one leg in penance, to the left of the cleft. Nearby, Shiva is depicted with his attendants, bestowing a boon with one hand in the varada mudra.

Below this scene is a shrine dedicated to Vishnu, with an aged sage and three disciples in attendance, while four other ascetics engage in rites of penance and ritual worship. On the opposite side of the river, a herd of elephants with their young can be seen, and beside the feet of the leading elephant, a cat is shown performing penance — a nod to a story from the Panchatantra.

In addition to  depiction of Arjuna’s Penance I found the sculpted image of a cat’s meditative posture interesting. It was surrounded by 15 mice, one of them praying to the cat. Could he be the hypocritical cat in fake meditation trying to fool the mice who came seeking justice from him?

Arjunas Penance

Cat in fake meditation?

Each figure is crafted with naturalistic poses and individualized facial features, adding to the lifelike quality of the scene. The depiction may have been intentionally ambiguous, reflecting the literary genres of the time, such as dvisamdhi-kavya, a form of poetry designed to have multiple meanings and interpretations.

The relief also portrays various episodes and stories without following a single narrative order, suggesting that it serves as a general allegory for spiritual penance and Shiva’s benevolence. Additionally, given its location in Mamallapuram, a port city frequented by foreign traders, the ambiguity of the images might have been intended to convey more universal ideas rather than specific cultural markers.

Descent of Ganges and Arjunas Penance Mahabalipuram

Oh! That itchy nose!

Regardless of the correct interpretations, this sculpture clearly incorporates religious storytelling. It also contains allusions to Pallava power and protection. Additionally, it features joyful scenes of animals, people, and deities.

Kinnara, half human and half bird, are also seen among this crowd. The male is shown holding stringed music instrument-Alapini Vina while the female seems to be holding cymbal.

Then there is a kim-purusha, dwarf with elongated ears. He is shown wearing a cap on his head and beating a drum.

Bas relief

Is that a pygmy hog at the top?

The relief includes a pool at its base and a storage tank above, which scholars believe indicate its use during celebratory occasions. It is thought that water could have been released from the tank to flow down the cleft, simulating a river. Additionally, an unfinished relief with the same theme is situated nearby, suggesting that the site may have functioned as an outdoor workshop.

Saint in pensive mood Mahabalipuram

This statue silenced my ruffled thoughts. How well the sculptor depicted his pensive mood! What must have been his thoughts while chiselling away at the rock!

See more carvings at Krishna Cave Temple.

Location of Great Relief at Mamallapuram

Mahabalipuram is also known by the name Mamallapuram. It is located on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal, in the Chengalpattu district of the state of Tamil Nadu, India.

Nearest train station to Mamallapuram is Chengalpattu Junction. It connects Chennai and various parts of Tamil Nadu by express and mail trains. On arrival at the station, one can hire a cab to travel a distance of around 29 km to reach Mamallapuram.

Nearest airport is in Chennai. Roads are good too. We traveled to Mahabalipuram by road after night halt at Kanchipuram.

Best Time to Visit Mahabalipuram

The best time to visit Mahabalipuram is during the winters, from the months of November to February. During this time, days are pleasant while the nights are cool.

Other Sights in Mamallapuram

You can visit the beach, monoliths, stone carvings and shore temples nearby. Mahabalipuram tour can be done in one day. Other 5 places worth a visit in Mahabalipuram are:

  • Pancha Rathas
  • Mahishasuramardini Mandapa.
  • Mahabalipuram lighthouse and beach.
  • Shore temple
  • Ganesh Ratha and Krishna’s Butterball.

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